Mongolia

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<p>The peoples of Mongolia have a long history under a number of nomadic empires dating back to the Xiongnu in the 4th century B.C., and the name Mongol goes back to at least the 11th century A.D. The most famous Mongol, TEMÜÜJIN (aka Genghis Khan), emerged as the ruler of all Mongols in the early 1200s. By the time of his death in 1227, he had created through conquest a Mongol Empire that extended across much of Eurasia. His descendants, including ÖGÖDEI and KHUBILAI (aka Kublai Khan), continued to conquer Eastern Europe, the Middle East, and the rest of China, where KHUBILAI established the Yuan Dynasty in the 1270s. The Mongols attempted to invade Japan and Java before their empire broke apart in the 14th century. In the 17th century, Mongolia fell under the rule of the Manchus of the Chinese Qing Dynasty. After Manchu rule collapsed in 1911, Mongolia declared independence, finally winning it in 1921 with help from the Soviet Union. Mongolia became a socialist state (the Mongolian People’s Republic) in 1924. Until the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1989, Mongolia was a Soviet satellite state and relied heavily on economic, military, and political assistance from Moscow. The period was also marked by purges, political repression, economic stagnation, and tensions with China. <br><br>Mongolia peacefully transitioned to an independent democracy in 1990. In 1992, it adopted a new constitution and established a free-market economy. Since the country's transition, it has conducted a series of successful presidential and legislative elections. Throughout the period, the ex-communist Mongolian People's Revolutionary Party -- which took the name Mongolian People’s Party (MPP) in 2010 -- has competed for political power with the Democratic Party and several other smaller parties. For most of its democratic history, Mongolia has had a divided government, with the presidency and the parliamentary majority held by different parties but that changed in 2021, when the MPP won the presidency after having secured a supermajority in parliament in 2020. Mongolia’s June 2021 presidential election delivered a decisive victory for MPP candidate Ukhnaagiin KHURELSUKH. <br><br>Mongolia maintains close cultural, political, and military ties with Russia, while China is its largest economic partner. Mongolia’s foreign relations are focused on preserving its autonomy by balancing relations with China and Russia, as well as its other major partners, Japan, South Korea, and the US.</p>

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Northern Asia, between China and Russia

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46 00 N, 105 00 E

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Asia

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slightly smaller than Alaska; more than twice the size of Texas

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0 km (landlocked)

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none (landlocked)

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desert; continental (large daily and seasonal temperature ranges)

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vast semidesert and desert plains, grassy steppe, mountains in west and southwest; Gobi Desert in south-central

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oil, coal, copper, molybdenum, tungsten, phosphates, tin, nickel, zinc, fluorspar, gold, silver, iron

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796 sq km (2022)

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Amur (shared with China [s] and Russia [m]) - 4,444 km<br><br><strong>note:</strong> [s] after country name indicates river source; [m] after country name indicates river mouth

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population sparsely distributed throughout the country; the capital of Ulaanbaatar and the northern city of Darhan support the highest population densities

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dust storms; grassland and forest fires; drought; "zud," which is harsh winter conditions

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landlocked; strategic location between China and Russia

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Khalkh 83.8%, Kazak 3.8%, Durvud 2.6%, Bayad 2%, Buriad 1.4%, Zakhchin 1.2%, Dariganga 1.1%, other 4.1% (2020 est.)

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Buddhist 51.8%, no religion 40.6%, Muslim 3.2%, Shaman 2.5%, Christian 1.3%, Other 0.6% (2020 est.)

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1.08% (2025 est.)

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18.01 births/1,000 population (2025 est.)

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5.35 deaths/1,000 population (2025 est.)

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-1.83 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2025 est.)

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population sparsely distributed throughout the country; the capital of Ulaanbaatar and the northern city of Darhan support the highest population densities

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1.673 million ULAANBAATAR (capital) (2023)

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20.5 years (2008 est.)

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<strong>note:</strong> data represents median age at first birth among women 20-24

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41 deaths/100,000 live births (2023 est.)

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2.6 children born/woman (2025 est.)

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1.27 (2025 est.)

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4.13 physicians/1,000 population (2022)

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10.6 beds/1,000 population (2021 est.)

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20.6% (2016)

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1.9% (2023 est.)

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60.2% (2020 est.)

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limited natural freshwater resources in some areas; air pollution from coal-burning power plants and lax regulations in Ulaanbaatar; soil erosion from deforestation and overgrazing; water pollution; desertification; effects from mining&nbsp;

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desert; continental (large daily and seasonal temperature ranges)

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41.3 micrograms per cubic meter (2019 est.)

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34.8 billion cubic meters (2022 est.)

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semi-presidential republic

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21 provinces (<em>aymguud</em>, singular - <em>aymag</em>) and 1 municipality* (<em>hot</em>); Arhangay, Bayanhongor, Bayan-Olgiy, Bulgan, Darhan-Uul, Dornod, Dornogovi, Dundgovi, Dzavhan (Zavkhan), Govi-Altay, Govisumber, Hentiy, Hovd, Hovsgol, Omnogovi, Orhon, Ovorhangay, Selenge, Suhbaatar, Tov, Ulaanbaatar*, Uvs

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civil law system influenced by Soviet and Romano-Germanic systems; constitution ambiguous on judicial review of legislative acts

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has not submitted an ICJ jurisdiction declaration; accepts ICCt jurisdiction

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18 years of age; universal

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Democratic Party or DP<br>Mongolian People's Party or MPP <br>National Coalition (consists of Mongolian Green Party or MGP and the Mongolian National Democratic Party or MNDP)<br>National Labor Party or HUN <br>Civil Will-Green Party or CWGP

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ADB, ARF, CD, CICA, CP, EBRD, EITI (compliant country), FAO, G-77, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICC (NGOs), ICCt, ICRM, IDA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, IMO, IMSO, Interpol, IOC, IOM, IPU, ISO, ITSO, ITU, ITUC, MIGA, MINURSO, MONUSCO, NAM, OPCW, OSCE, SCO (observer), UN, UNAMID, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UNISFA, UNMISS, UNOOSA, UNWTO, UPU, WCO, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WTO

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29 December 1911 (independence declared from China; in actuality, autonomy attained); 11 July 1921 (from China)

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Naadam (games) holiday, 11-15 July; Constitution Day, 26 November (1924)

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<strong>note: </strong>the first holiday commemorates independence from China in the 1921 Revolution, and the second marks the date that the Mongolian People's Republic was created under a new constitution<br>

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<strong>description: </strong>three equal vertical bands of red (left side), blue, and red; centered on the left-side red band is the national emblem in yellow, the <em>soyombo,</em> which is an abstract representation of fire, sun, moon, earth, water, and the yin-yang symbol<br><br><strong>meaning:</strong> blue stands for the sky, and red for progress and prosperity

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Soyombo character (from the Soyombo writing system)

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red, blue, yellow

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lower middle-income East Asian economy; large human capital improvements over last 3 decades; agricultural and natural resource rich; export and consumption-led growth; high inflation due to supply bottlenecks and increased food and energy prices; currency depreciation

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<b>note:</b> data in 2021 dollars

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<b>note:</b> annual GDP % growth based on constant local currency

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<b>note:</b> data in 2021 dollars

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$23.586 billion (2024 est.)

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<b>note:</b> data in current dollars at official exchange rate

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<b>note:</b> annual % change based on consumer prices

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<b>note:</b> figures may not total 100% due to non-allocated consumption not captured in sector-reported data

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<b>note:</b> figures may not total 100% due to rounding or gaps in data collection

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milk, wheat, lamb/mutton, potatoes, beef, carrots/turnips, goat milk, goat meat, bison milk, horse meat (2023)

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<b>note:</b> top ten agricultural products based on tonnage

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construction and construction materials; mining (coal, copper, molybdenum, fluorspar, tin, tungsten, gold); oil; food and beverages; processing of animal products, cashmere and natural fiber manufacturing

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6.5% (2024 est.)

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<b>note:</b> annual % change in industrial value added based on constant local currency

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1.449 million (2024 est.)

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<b>note:</b> number of people ages 15 or older who are employed or seeking work

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<b>note:</b> % of labor force seeking employment

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<b>note:</b> % of labor force ages 15-24 seeking employment

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27.1% (2022 est.)

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<b>note:</b> % of population with income below national poverty line

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<b>note:</b> index (0-100) of income distribution; higher values represent greater inequality

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<b>note:</b> % share of income accruing to lowest and highest 10% of population

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<b>note:</b> personal transfers and compensation between resident and non-resident individuals/households/entities

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<b>note:</b> central government revenues (excluding grants) and expenditures converted to US dollars at average official exchange rate for year indicated

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<b>note:</b> central government debt as a % of GDP

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16.9% (of GDP) (2021 est.)

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<b>note:</b> central government tax revenue as a % of GDP

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<b>note:</b> balance of payments - net trade and primary/secondary income in current dollars

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<b>note:</b> balance of payments - exports of goods and services in current dollars

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China 92%, Switzerland 6%, Italy 1%, Thailand 0%, Japan 0% (2023)

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<b>note:</b> top five export partners based on percentage share of exports

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coal, copper ore, gold, iron ore, crude petroleum (2023)

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<b>note:</b> top five export commodities based on value in dollars

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<b>note:</b> balance of payments - imports of goods and services in current dollars

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China 57%, Japan 13%, Germany 3%, Singapore 3%, USA 3% (2023)

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<b>note:</b> top five import partners based on percentage share of imports

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cars, trucks, trailers, tractors, construction vehicles (2023)

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<b>note:</b> top five import commodities based on value in dollars

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<b>note:</b> holdings of gold (year-end prices)/foreign exchange/special drawing rights in current dollars

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<b>note:</b> present value of external debt in current US dollars

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state-run radio and TV provider is now a public-service provider; also available are 68 radio and 160 TV stations, including multi-channel satellite and cable TV providers; transmissions of multiple international broadcasters are available (2019)

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.mn

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JU

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37 (2025)

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<strong>note:</strong> national operator Ulaanbaatar Railway is jointly owned by the Mongolian Government and by the Russian State Railway

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Mongolian Armed Forces (MAF): Land Force, Air Force, Cyber Security Forces, Special Forces, Construction-Engineering Forces (2025)

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<strong>note: </strong>the National Police Agency and the General Authority for Border Protection, which operate under the Ministry of Justice and Home Affairs, are primarily responsible for internal security; they are assisted by the General Intelligence Agency under the prime minister

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information varies; estimated 10-20,000 active Mongolian Armed Forces (2025)

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the MAF's inventory is comprised largely of Soviet-era and secondhand Russian equipment (2025)

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18-25 years of age for voluntary service for men and women; initial service 24 months; compulsory service for men at 18; service obligation is 12 months in the military or police, which can be extended to 15 months under special circumstances; compulsory service can be exchanged for a 24‐month stint in the civil service or a cash payment determined by the Mongolian Government; after conscription, soldiers can contract into military service for up to 4 years (2025)

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850 South Sudan (UNMISS) (2025)

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<strong>note:</strong> since 2002, Mongolia has deployed more than 20,000 peacekeepers and observers to UN operations in more than a dozen countries

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the Mongolian Armed Forces (MAF) are responsible for ensuring the country's independence, security, and territorial integrity, as well as supporting Mongolia's developmental goals and diplomacy; it has a range of missions, including counterterrorism, international peacekeeping duties, and assisting the internal security forces in providing emergency aid and disaster relief; Mongolia hosts an annual international peacekeeping exercise known as “Khaan Quest”; it has no formal military alliances, but has defense ties and conducts training exercises with several regional countries and others, such as China, India, Russia, and the US<br><br>Mongolia actively cooperates with NATO on issues such as counterterrorism, nonproliferation, and cybersecurity through an Individual Partnership and Cooperation Program; it supported the NATO-led Kosovo Force from 2005-2007 and contributed troops to the NATO-led missions in Afghanistan from 2009-2021; Mongolia also is an observer in the Shanghai Cooperation Organization (2025)